Art and beauty ideals through the ages – from antiquity to the 21st century

The question of beauty has preoccupied humanity since time immemorial, but its answer is like an ever-changing kaleidoscope. What was considered the pinnacle of divine perfection in one era was rejected as sinful in the next, or deconstructed as a banal surface in the one after that.

In art history, beauty never been an absolute, unchanging value; it is a fluid concept defined differently depending on the historical period, nation, and culture. The ideal of beauty is the shared conception of attractiveness in a society that extends beyond the physical body and also encompasses fashion, jewelry, and the presentation of personality.

Human aesthetics often functions as a medium in artistic interpretation to convey profound social, religious, or political messages – from ancient Kalokagathia to modern identity politics.

The philosophical basis: What is beauty to us?

The question of who or what is considered attractive has preoccupied humankind since antiquity. External beauty shapes our self-image. Many paintings and sculptures suggest that a pear-shaped body is perceived as attractive. In the real world, not every woman conforms to this ideal of beauty. A fuller figure, "orange peel skin" (visible dimples in the upper layer of skin), or "stretch marks" are perceived flaws that are not represented in art.

Before embarking on a chronological journey through the ages, it is helpful for art lovers and collectors to understand the theoretical foundation upon which our perception is based. The most influential philosophical definition of the modern era comes from Immanuel Kant ; in his “Critique of Judgment” (1790), he presents aesthetic judgment as a subjective judgment of taste that nevertheless claims universal validity.

According to Kant, beauty is not something inherent in things themselves; rather, it is a feeling of pleasure in the subject , brought about by the free harmony of imagination and understanding. In the 21st century, this idea is enriched by the work of Umberto Eco , who points out that beauty and ugliness are not fixed opposites.

According to the author, ugliness is often the “dark side” of beauty, a concept that influences Western thought just as much as the ideal. In modern art theory, beauty is also increasingly seen as a political and social tool. Friedrich Schiller considered the aesthetic education of humankind to be the path to becoming a moral being and to improving the state politically.

Viewed in this light, the body functions as a resonating chamber that embodies mental states and social attitudes.”

If we now turn to the example of people affected by fat deposits, in our modern society sometimes the only option is to consult a specialist in cosmetic surgery. There, procedures such as liposuction to solve the cosmetic problem. Localized fat deposits cannot always be reduced through regular exercise, careful skincare, or diet. Therefore, in some cases, surgical intervention is necessary to permanently correct one's body image. But why is one's own body perceived as flawed, unattractive, or even ugly?

Beauty is subjective. Art history teaches us that the ideal of beauty has changed many times over the course of time

The perception of beauty as a reflection of society

Art and artistic activities have always been a reflection of society. As a symbol of fertility, the female body a significant role in all art forms. Painting, like photography, favors a pleasing appearance without visible "flaws ." Statues and sculptures discovered in the burial chambers of Egyptian pyramids embody important personalities. The black-rimmed eyes are particularly striking.

In ancient times, kohl was used to darken eyelashes and the sensitive eye area. This practice was not primarily for beauty, but for protection against strong UV radiation. The Middle Ages are often described in history books as unhygienic and dirty. The common people at that time had hardly any means of beauty care.

Members of noble families, on the other hand, used soap and other grooming products to care for their bodies. In this era, a boyish appearance was considered the ideal of beauty. Religious and political motifs , such as the symbolism of recognizable in many works of art. As a bird of prey, the eagle personified powerful rulers and deities.

But let's go back to the beginning of our chronological journey…

The original forms: fertility and symmetry

Even the earliest artistic depictions of the human body in prehistory allow for a profound analysis of the priorities of that era. Well-known examples, such as the 25,000-year-old Venus of Willendorf , illustrate this with voluminous bellies, ample breasts, and powerful legs.

In this culture, beauty was not synonymous with slimness; it was associated with fertility and the survival of the family.
Around 3000 BC, a completely different approach emerged in Egypt . Here, beauty was defined by delicate facial features, almond-shaped eyes, a long neck, and an exceptionally slender body. Aesthetic ideals, expressed in symmetry and perfection, as seen, for example, in the face of Nefertiti ( "The Beautiful One has come" ), have persisted to the present day.

Classical Antiquity: The Formation of the Canon

Ancient Greece knew the concept of kalokagathia , which linked physical aesthetics with the moral ideal – a beautiful body was believed to be a sign of a good and virtuous character. The human body was considered the measure of all things, while artists strove for mathematical perfection.

Beauty in Numbers: A Consideration of the Aesthetics of Mathematics.

In the 5th century BC, the sculptor Polykleitos his "Canon," a system of proportions based on the relationship between individual body parts. An essential component was the Golden Ratio , which ensured a symmetry perceived as natural and harmonious. Today, we can biometrically analyze the aesthetic ideals of the body from bygone eras; it becomes clear that adherence to these mathematical rules was considered a sign of health and biological fitness.

The ideal male figure was that of the athlete – muscular, disciplined, and heroically naked, demonstrating the superiority of the mind over the body and the status of a free citizen. For women, the ideal initially embodied modest beauty, which in Hellenistic times developed into a more open, sensual representation, as exemplified by the Aphrodite of Knidos or the Venus de Milo .

The Roman adaptation and its status

The Romans largely adopted Greek ideals, but they supplemented them with a stronger emphasis on prestige and fashion. During the imperial period, elaborate hairstyles and blonde or red-dyed hair were fashionable for women – this was considered a sign of wealth and the availability of expensive imported goods. Here, the concept of beauty was always closely linked to social status: a flawless appearance was a sign of power and civilization, in contrast to the “unkempt” world of the barbarians.

The Middle Ages: Spiritualization and the S-curve

A paradigm shift occurred with the rise of Christianity. The body was often seen as a kind of vessel for the soul, secondary to spiritual salvation. In the Middle Ages, especially during the Romanesque period, anatomical accuracy in art was neglected in favor of a symbolic language.

The Gothic (roughly the 12th to 14th centuries) brought with it a new elegance. Stained glass and sculpture featured slimmer, more elongated figures. The S-shaped curve of the posture was a striking characteristic, lending an ethereal, almost weightless grace. Beauty was interpreted as a reflection of the divine, which was expressed in the delicate details of cathedral sculpture and the pursuit of light and spirituality.

The Renaissance: An Era of Individuality

The Renaissance brought about the return of man as the center of the world. Masters such as Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo , and Raphael combined ancient ideals of beauty with new anatomical and perspectival insights.

Raphael and the ideal of harmony

Raphael Sanzio is considered the master of harmonious composition. His Madonna paintings and portraits, such as La Velata , embody the High Renaissance ideal: a harmonious combination of grace, symmetry, and naturalness. Women in this era were expected to have a pale complexion, a high forehead (often resulting in hair being plucked at the roots), and golden-blond hair.

As a clear class marker, this paleness was proof that the woman did not have to do field work and was wealthy enough to stay in the safety of indoor spaces.

Heroic masculinity and Diane de Poitiers

The Renaissance man was strong and muscular, a physique emphasized by fashionable touches such as broad shoulder pads and puffed sleeves; these were intended to demonstrate his physical presence and power. Diane de Poitiers, on the other hand, is a remarkable example of the relentless pursuit of eternal youth; she attempted to preserve her aesthetic ideal well into old age through strict diets and cold baths – an early precursor to today's obsession with self-improvement.

Baroque and Rococo: The Curves of Passion

The Baroque era arrived, bringing with it what the Renaissance had left behind: a tranquility that was replaced by dynamism, emotionality, and a vibrant sensuality. During this time, physical fullness was considered a sign of beauty and success.

Peter Paul Rubens: The Body as Landscape

The Baroque understanding of the body was shaped, in part, by Peter Paul Rubens . He depicted women as "Rubens figures" —voluptuously proportioned women with soft skin and graceful curves, representing an aesthetic manifesto against scarcity. In an era marked by wars and famines, a robust physique was a sign of wealth and divine blessing. Since sugar and fat were expensive luxuries, anyone who could afford them openly displayed their wealth through their figure.

Rubens' mastery lay in his depiction of incarnate—the flesh tones. He combined shades of blue, red, and yellow with white to reveal the transparency and vibrancy of the skin. Works such as The Three Graces convey beauty, joy, and fertility by making the body appear alive through an almost tangible texture.

Gallantry in the Rococo period

In the Rococo period (18th century), the baroque grandeur was transformed into a playful delicacy. The figures became more lifelike, yet more elegant, and were integrated into bright, pastel-colored scenes. A world of lightheartedness was created by artists such as Boucher and Fragonard , in which female beauty served as an ornamental element within an aristocratic culture of pleasure.

The 19th century: The stylistic competition

The Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution marked the beginning of the fragmentation of beauty ideals. Classicism once again found solace in the austerity of antiquity, while Romanticism sought the sublime, the dark, and the emotional.

From corset to realism

In the 19th century, the female body underwent extreme interventions and manipulations. The wasp waist became the ideal, despite the significant health risks involved. At the same time, realism emerged as a counter-movement. Gustave Courbet and other artists succeeded in depicting the "ugly" aspects of everyday life and unembellished bodies.

Reality should now be deconstructed and redefined by art, instead of merely idealizing it.

Classical Modernism: The Body as a Field for Experiments

The 20th century saw a definitive break with the traditional ideal of beauty. Art responded to the technological advancement of the world and the traumas of the world wars.

Machine vs. Organism

Expressionism fear and resistance to mechanization. The body was often portrayed as a fragment or a mechanized unit subject to the constraints of assembly-line production. Constructivism and Futurism celebrated the idea of ​​human-machine union, with the efficient, steel body seen as the new ideal.

The emancipation of women

At the beginning of the 20th century, women began to create their own ideals of beauty that differed from traditional roles. Refusing curves and wearing short hairstyles like the bob were acts of rebellion and demonstrated a desire for equality. Beauty became a political issue.

The 21st century: Identity, diversity and digitalization

The prevailing beauty ideal of the 21st century has little in common with those of the past. Today, women with slim figures are considered graceful and desirable. Youthful appearance and athleticism are paramount in the perception of beauty. For men, being tall and muscular is sufficient.

The ideal of thinness as a beauty standard is not universally accepted in art. A thin body does not automatically offer a beautiful appearance. Artistic interpretation is multidimensional and creative. Beauty consists of many different facets. Making these aspects visible and tangible is the task of modern art.

We currently live in a time where beauty ideals are globally standardized yet radically deconstructed. In the 21st century, the “multiplied image society ,” the body has become a project that must be constantly optimized and staged.

Surgical Transformation in Performance Art

ORLAN , an artist from France, uses plastic surgery as an art form to explore the boundaries of identity and beauty. In her surgical performances, she has had her face altered to resemble famous art icons, in order to expose and deconstruct the “male gaze” of art history.

She sees her body as a “readymade” and demands the freedom to create her image beyond conventional models.

 

New representations: Kehinde Wiley and Jenny Saville

Artists like Jenny Saville, with their monumental depictions of the body, take the representation of the human form in contemporary painting to a new level. Saville portrays bodies often perceived as “anti-beautiful” —obese, injured, or post-surgical. She forces the viewer to examine their prejudices about beauty and disgust, reminding them of physical reality in a world increasingly dominated by virtuality.

In contrast, Kehinde Wiley the visual language of the Old Masters to depict Black people in the poses of kings and saints. He deconstructs the Eurocentric beauty ideals of art history and creates a new visual rhetoric of power and dignity for marginalized people. With his work, he has created a powerful elegy for visibility and erected a monument to diversity.

The impact of social media and AI

Thanks to platforms like Instagram, aesthetics have become increasingly homogenized, often referred to as the “Instagram Face” —an unattainable look that blends ethnic features through surgery and filters. Experts predict a trend toward “natural polish” for 2026, where health and a well-rested appearance become the new status symbols, as time for self-care and exercise becomes a luxury.

In the art market of 2026, artificial intelligence (AI) is both a disruptive factor and a helpful tool. While AI increasingly creates simple illustrations, “high-value creativity” —artworks that embody the irreplaceable heights of human creativity and symbolic significance—is becoming ever more highly valued.

The new “anti-AI aesthetic” relies on analog processes such as 35mm film to emphasize human craftsmanship and authenticity.

The freedom of individual aesthetics

Looking at history reveals that beauty has never been a fixed goal, but rather a language through which societies reflected on themselves. From the mathematical symmetry of antiquity to the exuberant joie de vivre of the Baroque and the radical deconstruction of the present, art has constantly reshaped human aesthetics.

In today's world, artists and art lovers should understand beauty as a dialogue, no longer as an obligation. Be it in the monumental paintings of a Jenny Saville or the digital universes of a Jia Aili, contemporary art proves that truth is often found in imperfection, fragmentation, and individuality.

As Karl Valentin once remarked, beauty involves a great deal of work, yet it is the “wine of life” that helps us celebrate the complexity of our existence.

For the contemporary collector, this means ignoring the obvious and seeking works that make a “symbolic statement” —a quality that even the most outstanding AI cannot replicate. In the 21st century, beauty is no longer a dictate; it is an invitation to empathy and to discovering the “other” within ourselves.