Leonardo da Vinci: Biography, Works and Appreciation of the Universal Genius

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is considered one of the most fascinating personalities in the history of Western art.

Originally from Florence , he received his training as a painter and sculptor in the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio (1435–1488). But Leonardo was not only an artist, but also a scientist. His insatiable curiosity drove him to constantly observe, experiment, and make new inventions.

Drawing served him as a means of documenting his scientific investigations. Although only a few complete works by Leonardo exist, he left behind an extensive collection of approximately 2,500 drawings.

These preliminary sketches have largely survived to this day in his notebooks. During his creative period, Leonardo worked primarily in Florence (1472–c. 1482, 1500–1508) and Milan (c. 1482–99, 1508–13).

However, in the last years of his life he spent time in Rome (1513-16) and France (1516-17), where he eventually died.

Leonardo's genius as an artist and inventor continues to inspire other artists and scientists around the world – even centuries after his death. In Florence , the city of his youth, Leonardo left his mark as a painter and engineer, and to this day he continues to inspire people worldwide.

This article provides an overview of Da Vinci's prolific life, his artistic, technical, and scientific achievements, and his biography. Let's delve together into the world of one of the most important artists of all time.

Unique position in art history

Leonardo's fame, which remains unbroken both during his lifetime and today, is largely based on his insatiable thirst for knowledge , which shaped his thinking and actions.

As a talented artist, he considered sight the most important path to knowledge. For him, sight was the highest human sense, as it conveys the facts of experience directly and reliably.

Thus, every perceived phenomenon became the object of his knowledge, and learning to “see” became a main theme of his studies.

He used his creative talent in all areas involving visual representation – painting, sculpture, architecture, and engineering.

But he went even further: With his brilliant mind , his extraordinary powers of observation , and his drawing skills, he dedicated himself to the study of nature itself. This line of research enabled him to forge a flourishing connection between art and science .

Profile and short biography

Profile – Key Facts

The most important facts about the gifted artistic genius:

Brief biography

Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452, in Vinci, Italy, a town near Florence. His parents were Ser Piero, a 25-year-old notary, and Caterina, a peasant woman. Although born out of wedlock, his father assumed responsibility for him shortly after his birth.

As a young man, Leonardo spent his time at his father's house in Vinci and had access to scientific writings belonging to family and friends. He was also exposed to Vinci's long tradition of artistic works.

At around the age of 15, his father took him on as an apprentice in the renowned workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio in Florence. Even during his apprenticeship, Leonardo's extraordinary talent and genius were clearly evident.

His exceptional abilities seem to be confirmed by several works of art dating from 1470 to 1475. Particularly noteworthy is an angel painted by Leonardo, which was supposedly superior to the works of his master, Verrocchio. It is claimed that Verrocchio never wanted to paint again.

Leonardo remained in Verrocchio's workshop until 1477. To earn a living and seek new challenges, he entered the service of the Duke of Milan in 1482 and received his first commission in Florence for the painting "The Adoration of the Magi" .

He spent a total of 17 years in Milan and only left the city after the overthrow of Duke Ludovico Sforza in 1499. During this time, Leonardo reached new heights both scientifically and artistically.

The Duke employed him in painting , sculpture , and the design of magnificent court ceremonies. But he also commissioned Leonardo to design weapons, buildings, and machines. Between 1485 and 1490, Leonardo conducted studies on various subjects—including natural sciences , flying machines , geometry , mechanics , and urban and fortress architecture (he designed everything from church buildings to fortifications).

His studies even included designs for advanced weapons such as tanks and other war vehicles, as well as various combat devices and submarines. During this time, Leonardo also began his first anatomical studies. His Milanese workshop was always full of apprentices and students.

Unfortunately, due to his diverse interests and constant fascination with new subjects, Leonardo often left projects unfinished. In 17 years, he completed only about six works, including "The Last Supper" and "The Virgin on the Rocks ," while dozens of paintings and projects remained unfinished or unrealized.

He primarily occupied himself with the study of natural sciences , whether through observations in nature or by locking himself in his workshop to contemplate universal truths or dissect bodies. Between 1490 and 1495, he began to record his studies in lovingly illustrated notebooks.

His work encompassed four main themes: painting , architecture , elements of mechanics , and human anatomy . These studies and sketches were compiled in various codices and manuscripts , which are now collected by museums and private individuals (Bill Gates once paid $30 million for the Codex Leicester!).

After the fall of Ludovico Sforza in 1499, Leonardo returned to Milan and began his search for a new patron. Over the next 16 years, he worked for various employers throughout Italy, including the infamous Cesare Borgia .

He spent a year as a military engineer in Borgia's army and even met Niccolò Machiavelli , the author of "The Prince" . During this time, Leonardo designed a bridge over the Golden Horn in Constantinople and, with Machiavelli's support, was commissioned to paint Battle of Anghiari

Mona Lisa around 1503. From 1513 to 1516, he worked in Rome, where he ran a workshop and carried out various projects for the Pope. Although he continued his study of human anatomy, the Pope forbade him from dissecting corpses, which limited his progress.

After the death of his patron Giuliano de' Medici in March 1516, Francis I of France offered him the title of first painter, as well as engineer and architect to the king. His last and perhaps most generous patron was Francis I, who granted him a scholarship and provided him with a manor house near the royal château in Amboise.

Although he had paralysis in his right hand, Leonardo was still able to draw and teach because he wrote with his left hand. He created sketches for the depiction of the Virgin Mary in "The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne ," as well as studies of cats , horses, dragons, and Saint George.

He is even said to have once:

The cat is nature's masterpiece

He also produced anatomical studies and explored the nature of water . Furthermore, he created drawings of the Great Flood and various machines.

Leonardo died on May 2, 1519, in Cloux, France. According to legend, King Francis was at his side and held Leonardo's head in his arms at the moment of his death.

Leonardo da Vinci – Life and Work in Detail

1452-1467: The Early Years – A Childhood Full of Curiosity and Discovery

Leonardo da Vinci was in 1452 in Anchiano, a town in Tuscany (now Italy). The town of Vinci, near which he grew up, gave him his surname.

In his time, he was known as Leonardo or “Il Florentine” and enjoyed a reputation as an artist, inventor, and thinker. It is interesting to note that Leonardo's parents were never married. His father was a lawyer and notary, and his mother was a farmer.

Leonardo was the only child from this relationship. His parents had a total of 17 other children with other partners – Leonardo's half-siblings. Da Vinci's mother, Caterina, married another man when he was very young and started a new family.

From the age of five, he lived on his father Ser Peiro's estate in Vinci. His uncle, who had a special love of nature – something that was eventually passed on to Leonardo.

Even as a child, Leonardo da Vinci was characterized by an insatiable curiosity and thirst for discovery. His drive to explore and his powers of observation were exceptional, which quickly made him an inquisitive boy.

He showed an early interest in art and drawings, which later developed into a lifelong passion.

Leonardo grew up in his father's residence and enjoyed treatment similar to that of a legitimately recognized child.

During this time, he received a standard primary education , which included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Later, Leonardo began to study Latin, considered a key language for traditional learning. He acquired practical knowledge of it independently.

Furthermore, he only began to seriously study higher mathematics, particularly advanced geometry and arithmetic, at the age of 30. From that point on, however, he devoted himself to these areas with great diligence and perseverance.

1467-1472: Artistic training under Verrocchio

When he was about 15 years old, he was introduced by his esteemed father to the workshop of the artist Andrea del Verrocchio .

In this renowned workshop, Leonardo received comprehensive training in painting, sculpture, and technical-mechanical arts. He also worked with the neighboring artist Antonio Pollaiuolo .

When he was 20 years old, the painters' guild of Florence offered da Vinci membership in 1472, but he stayed with Verrocchio until he became an independent master in 1478.

Many outstanding pen and pencil drawings from this period have survived, including numerous technical sketches such as pumps, military weapons and mechanical devices – a testament to Leonardo's interest in technical matters at the very beginning of his career.

1472-1482: First Florentine Period

In 1472, at the age of only 20, Leonardo achieved the title of master in the Guild of Saint Luke, an association of artists and physicians. Although his father had already placed him in his own workshop, his close relationship with Verrocchio persisted, and they continued to work and even live together.

The earliest known dated work by Leonardo is from 1473: a pen drawing of the Arno Valley . Vasari also reported that Leonardo was the first to propose the idea of ​​making the Arno River navigable and building a canal between Florence and Pisa.

In January 1478, Leonardo received an independent commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of Saint Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio – a clear sign of his independence from Verrocchio's workshop.

Around 1482 he began to paint his first commissioned work, The Adoration of the Magi , for San Donato in Florence, a Scopeto monastery.

However, da Vinci never completed this work, as he moved to Milan shortly afterwards to work for the ruling Sforza clan, where he worked as an engineer, painter, architect, organizer of court festivities and, above all, as a sculptor.

In a letter to Sforza, he described his diverse skills in the fields of technology and weapons design, and also mentioned his talent as a painter.

Together with Alberti, he visited the Medici's homeland and there met prominent humanist philosophers. These included Marsiglio Ficino , a proponent of Neoplatonism ; Cristoforo Landino , who wrote commentaries on classical texts; and John Argyropoulos , a Greek teacher and translator of Aristotle. Leonardo was also associated with the Medici's Platonic Academy and met the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola .

In 1482 he was sent by Lorenzo de' Medici as ambassador to Ludovico il Moro, the ruler of Milan between 1479 and 1499.

1482-1499: First Milanese Period

In 1482, Leonardo decided to move to Milan and work for the Duke of the city. This decision came as a surprise, as he had just received his first major commission from his hometown of Florence: the unfinished panel painting "Adoration of the Magi" for the monastery of San Donato a Scopeto and an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the Palazzo della Signoria, which, however, was never begun.

By abandoning both projects, it seems to have become clear that he had deeper reasons for leaving Florence.

He may have been repelled by the demanding spirit of Neoplatonism in Florence and felt more drawn to the academic environment in Milan . Furthermore, the brilliant court of Duke Ludovico Sforza and the significant projects underway there were undoubtedly also a draw for him.

Leonardo spent 17 years in Milan until Ludovico lost power in 1499. In the royal records, he was listed as the Duke's "painter and engineer ." Leonardo's graceful personality and elegant demeanor made him extremely popular at court.

He enjoyed high esteem as a painter, sculptor, and designer of courtly festivities. He was also frequently consulted as a technical advisor for architecture, fortifications, and military affairs, and worked as a hydraulic and mechanical engineer.

Leonardo always had ambitious goals in mind; if one takes stock of his work during this time or of his entire life, it could aptly be called an impressive “unfinished symphony” .

During his 17 years in Milan, the talented painter Leonardo completed six works of art . Although he was commissioned to create three more paintings, these are either lost or were never finished, according to contemporary sources.

From around 1483 to 1486, Leonardo devoted himself to the altarpiece "The Virgin of the Rocks ," which led to a ten-year legal dispute between him and the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception, which had commissioned the work. For unknown reasons, this conflict prompted Leonardo to create another version of the painting around 1508.

During this first period in Milan he also created one of his most famous works: the monumental mural “The Last Supper” (1495-98) in the refectory of the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie .

Furthermore, his decorative ceiling painting from 1498 for the Sala delle Asse in the Castello Sforzesco in Milan is extremely noteworthy.

Leonardo's Horse: Monumental sculpture project in honor of Francesco Sforza

During this period, Leonardo worked on an impressive sculpture project , which was obviously the main reason for his invitation to Milan: a monumental bronze equestrian statue to be erected as a tribute to Francesco Sforza, the founder of the Sforza dynasty.

For twelve years, Leonardo devoted himself to this task, with interruptions. In 1493, the clay model of the horse was publicly displayed on the occasion of the wedding of Emperor Maximilian to Bianca Maria Sforza, and preparations were made to cast the gigantic figure – it was to be 16 feet (5 meters) high.

However, due to the threat of war, the metal, which was already ready for casting, was instead used to manufacture cannons, and this brought the project to a standstill.

Ludovico's downfall in 1499 finally sealed the fate of this failed project, which was possibly one of the greatest monumental concepts of the 15th century.

The ensuing war left only fragments of the clay model.

The late Charles C. Dent of Allentown, Pennsylvania—a retired airline pilot, diplomatic activist, and arts patron—dedicated the last 17 years of his life to realizing "The Horse ." While Charles C. Dent passed away in 1994, the organization he founded continued under the leadership of his nephew, Peter C. Dent. LDVHI unveiled the completed statue to a worldwide audience in September 1999.

The Da Vinci Science Center owns the intellectual property and licensing rights to the Leonardo horse sculpture . Additional sculptures were also commissioned and exhibited in Grand Rapids, Michigan; Sheridan, Wyoming; and in Leonardo's hometown of Vinci, Italy.

As a renowned artist, Leonardo maintained a large workshop in Milan, employing apprentices and students. Among Leonardo's pupils at this time were Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio, Ambrogio de Predis, Bernardino de' Conti, Francesco Napoletano, Andrea Solari, Marco d'Oggiono, and Salai.

The exact role of most of these assistants remains unclear, leading to questions regarding Leonardo's so-called apocryphal works—works on which the master collaborated with his assistants. Scholars have been unable to agree on the attribution of these works.

1500-1508: Second Florentine Period

In December 1499 or at the latest in January 1500, Leonardo left Milan together with the mathematician Lucas Pacioli, after the French had victoriously entered the city.

The government of Venice asked him for advice on how to defend against a possible Turkish attack in Friuli. Leonardo recommended that they prepare measures to flood the threatened region. After his stay in Venice, he returned to Florence , where, despite his long absence, he was enthusiastically received and honored as a renowned local artist.

In the same year, he also became part of a committee tasked with investigating damage to the foundation and structure of the church of San Francesco al Monte – due to his expertise as an architectural expert . During his time with the Servites in the cloister of Santissima Annunziata, Leonardo's focus seemed to shift more towards mathematical studies than painting.

Isabella d'Este searched in vain for a painting by him and instead learned from Fra Pietro Nuvolaria, her representative in Florence, about Leonardo's involvement in mathematical studies during this time.

Perhaps driven by his curiosity, Leonardo left Florence in the summer of 1502 to the service of Cesare Borgia “chief military architect and general engineer .” Borgia, the infamous son of Pope Alexander VI, ruthlessly sought to gain control of the Papal States of Romagna and Marche while simultaneously serving as commander-in-chief of the papal army.

At this time, Borgia was at the height of his power – a man of just 27 years, but undoubtedly the most impressive and feared figure of his era. During his time at Cesare Borgia's court, Leonardo also met Niccolò Machiavelli , who was temporarily stationed there as a political observer from Florence.

In the spring of 1503, Leonardo returned to Florence to prepare an expert opinion for a project . The aim was to divert the Arno River behind Pisa , thereby strengthening the Florentine siege of the city. Although this plan proved unfeasible, it gave Leonardo a new idea: the construction of a canal to connect Florence to the sea.

Leonardo developed his concepts through detailed studies and surveys of the terrain, as well as his own panoramic views of the river in the form of artistically appealing landscape sketches. He mapped out the course of the planned canal, including a passage over the Serravalle mountain pass.

In 1503, Leonardo received a significant commission to paint a huge mural for the council chamber in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. It was to be a monumental historical scene, twice the size of the famous Last Supper.

For three years he worked intensively on this painting entitled “Battle of Anghiari” . Unfortunately, it remained unfinished, just like Michelangelo's planned complementary painting “Battle of Cascina” . During this time, Leonardo also painted the world-famous portrait of the Mona Lisa (c. 1503-19).

During his second period in Florence, Leonardo also devoted himself to intensive scientific studies . He carried anatomical dissections at the Santa Maria Nuova hospital and extensively investigated the structure and function of the human body.

Furthermore, he systematically observed the flight of birds for his planned treatise on the subject. Even his hydrological studies of water —both its nature and movement—became increasingly comprehensive, especially when he compared them with the properties of air.

He recorded all this research in his own notebook called Codex Hammer (formerly known as Leicester Codex ), which is now owned by software entrepreneur Bill Gates in Seattle, Washington.

1508-1513: Second Milanese Period

In May 1506, Charles d'Amboise , the French governor in Milan, submitted a request to the Signoria in Florence. He asked that Leonardo da Vinci travel to Milan. The Signoria granted this request, and thus Anghiari's monumental mural remained unfinished.

It seems that Leonardo abandoned his work on the painting due to unsuccessful color experiments; there is no other plausible explanation for his abandonment of this impressive work.

In the winter of 1507/08, Leonardo went to Florence to assist the sculptor Giovanni Francesco Rustici with the execution of his bronze statues for the Baptistery. Afterwards, he settled again in Milan.

In Milan, Leonardo was honored and admired by his generous patrons Charles d'Amboise and King Louis XII. His work was largely limited to architectural consulting. Concrete evidence of this can be found in the plans for a palatial villa for Charles, as well as presumably some sketches for an oratory in the church of Santa Maria alla Fontana, which was also financed by Charles.

Leonardo also worked on an old project that had been revived by the French governor: to create a waterway Adda River

During his second stay in Milan, Leonardo was hardly active as a painter. He surrounded himself again with pupils, including his former pupils Bernardino de' Conti and Salai , as well as new ones such as Cesare da Sesto, Giampetrino, Bernardino Luini, and the young nobleman Francesco Melzi – Leonardo's most loyal friend and companion until his death.

During this time, Leonardo received a significant commission from Gian Giacomo Trivulzio , Marshal of the French army and bitter enemy of Ludovico Sforza. Trivulzio commissioned him to design his tomb in the form of an equestrian statue for the mortuary chapel he had commissioned in the church of San Nazaro Maggiore.

However, after years of preparation for the monument, Trivulzio ultimately opted for a more modest plan, thus abandoning the second sculptural project that Leonardo faced.

During this period, Leonardo's scientific activity reached its peak. Through his collaboration with Marcantonio della Torre, a renowned anatomist from Pavia, his studies in anatomy a new dimension.

Leonardo had a vision of a comprehensive work that would not only include accurate and detailed depictions of the human body and its organs, but also cover comparative anatomy and the entire field of physiology.

He even planned to complete his anatomical manuscript in the winter of 1510/11. Furthermore, his writings are replete with mathematical, optical, mechanical, geological, and botanical investigations. This research was increasingly driven by a fundamental conviction: the belief that force and motion, as fundamental mechanical functions, produce and shape all external forms in organic and inorganic nature.

Furthermore, he was convinced that these functioning forces operate according to ordered, harmonious laws.

1513-1519: Last years in Rome and France

In 1513, Leonardo, by then 60 years old, decided to move again due to political events – namely the temporary expulsion of the French from Milan. At the end of the year, accompanied by his pupils Melzi and Salai, as well as two studio assistants, he set off for Rome .

His hope lay in finding employment with his patron Giuliano de' Medici, the brother of the new Pope Leo X. Giuliano did indeed grant him a suite of rooms in the Belvedere Palace in the Vatican as a residence and a generous monthly stipend.

However, no major commissions materialized. During his three-year stay in Rome, the city was a hive of artistic activity: Donato Bramante was building St. Peter's Basilica, Raphael was painting the final rooms of the Pope's new apartments, and Michelangelo was struggling to complete the tomb of Pope Julius II.

Many younger artists, such as Timoteo Viti and Sodoma, were also active. During this time, Leonardo expressed his disappointment through angry letters about the lack of major projects for himself; he worked quietly on mathematical studies or technical experiments in his studio or examined ancient monuments during walks through the city.

It seems that Leonardo spent some time with Bramante; however, Bramante died in 1514 and there is no evidence of Leonardo's relationships with other artists in Rome.

A magnificently executed map of the Pontine Marshes suggests that Leonardo da Vinci at least acted as a consultant for a restoration project commissioned by Giuliano de' Medici in 1514. He also produced sketches for the construction of a spacious residence in Florence, commissioned by the returning Medici family – however, this building was never constructed.

Perhaps overwhelmed by this situation, Leonardo, at the age of 65, accepted the invitation of the young King Francis I France and enter his service . At the end of 1516, he left Italy forever, accompanied by Melzi, his most loyal pupil.

Leonardo spent the last three years of his life at the small residence of Cloux (later called Clos-Lucé), near the king's summer palace on the Loire in Amboise. He proudly bore the title "First Painter, Architect and Engineer to the King" .

Although Leonardo was still making sketches for court festivities, the king treated him as an honored guest and granted him freedom in his projects. Decades later, Francis I spoke with the sculptor Benvenuto Cellini about Leonardo with great admiration and appreciation.

Leonardo designed plans for the palace and gardens of Romorantin for the king, intended as a widow's residence for the queen mother. The meticulously crafted project combined the best of Italian and French traditions in palace and landscape architecture ; unfortunately, it had to be abandoned due to the threat of malaria in the region.

During his time in France, Leonardo da Vinci was not particularly productive as a painter; instead, he devoted most of his time to organizing and revising his scientific studies and his treatise on painting and anatomy.

In the remarkable series “Visions of the End of the World” (c. 1517-18), which also includes the drawings “A Flood” , he expressed with impressive imagination the primal forces that could dominate nature – possibly an indication of his increasing pessimism.

Leonardo died in Cloux and was buried in the palace church of Saint-Florentin . Unfortunately, this church was ravaged during the French Revolution and completely demolished in the early 19th century; thus, his grave is now lost.

Leonardo's artistic and scientific legacy passed to Melzi, who became his heir.

Achievements beyond art: Inventions and philosophy

Da Vinci's interests were wide-ranging and extended beyond the fine arts . He studied nature , mechanics , anatomy , physics , architecture , weapons and other fields.

He often drew up precise plans for machines such as bicycles, helicopters, submarines and military tanks – centuries before they were actually built.

Sigmund Freud once wrote about him:

He was like a man who woke up too early and saw everyone else still asleep

One could say that da Vinci's diverse interests were united by several themes. Above all, he believed that sight was the most important human sense and that being able to "see" (saper vedere) was crucial for fully grasping life in all its facets.

For him, science and art were not separate disciplines but complemented each other; ideas from one area could influence the other – indeed, they should.

Probably due to his numerous interests, da Vinci did not manage to complete many of his paintings or projects. Instead, he spent a great deal of time immersing himself in nature; testing scientific laws; dissecting human and animal bodies and then recording his observations or reflecting on them intensively.

Da Vinci's Notebooks

Sometime in the early 1490s, Leonardo da Vinci began filling his notebooks with four main subjects: painting, architecture, mechanics, and human anatomy.

These books contain thousands of pages with carefully drawn illustrations and detailed commentaries.

Some of these comments were illegible to others mirror writing codices —are now in museum collections, having been scattered after his death.

The Codex Atlanticus, for example, contains a plan for a 65-foot-long mechanical bat. This flying machine is essentially based on bat physiology as well as the principles of aviation and physics.

Other notebooks contain da Vinci's anatomical studies of the human skeleton, muscles, brain, and digestive and reproductive systems. These studies gave a wider audience a new understanding of the human body.

However, Da Vinci's notebooks were not published in the 16th century and therefore had little influence on scientific progress during the Renaissance.

Posthumous fame, legacy and appreciation

Although he had no formal academic training, many historians and scholars consider Leonardo the best example of a universal genius . Leonardo's talent is widely regarded as one of the most versatile of any who ever lived.

Art historian Helen Gardner described his interests as unprecedented in recorded history, stressing that his mind and personality may appear superhuman, while he himself seems mysterious and aloof.

Although Leonardo's view of art was logically grounded, he used unorthodox empirical methods for his time. Leonardo enjoyed such great fame during his lifetime that the King of France treated him like a trophy, reportedly supporting him until his death and even holding him in his arms when he passed away.

Interest in Leonardo and his work remains unbroken to this day: people still queue up in front of his most famous artworks; T-shirts with his most famous drawing are still popular; writers continue to celebrate him as a genius – but at the same time they speculate about his private life and what such an intelligent person actually believed in.

The Louvre in Paris organized an extraordinary exhibition between November 2019 and February 2020 to commemorate the five-hundredth anniversary of Leonardo da Vinci's death . Titled "Leonardo," it was the largest solo exhibition of his works ever presented.

Over one hundred paintings, drawings, and notebooks were part of this impressive collection. Particularly noteworthy was the presence of eleven paintings that Leonardo had completed during his lifetime.

Sources and further information:

• Britannica : Leonardo da Vinci – Italian artist, engineer, and scientist , https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci
• Museum of Science, Boston : DA VINCI — THE RENAISSANCE MAN , https://www.mos.org/leonardo/biography
• The MET Museum : Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) , https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/leon/hd_leon.htm
• Bambach, Carmen : “Anatomy in the Renaissance.” (October 2002)
• Bambach, Carmen : “Renaissance Drawings: Material and Function.” (October 2002)
• History.com : Leonardo da Vinci , https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/leonardo-da-vinci
• Gardner, Helen (1970): Art through the Ages . pp. 450–56.