Artemisia Gentileschi - Italian Baroque from his female side

The depictions of Italian Baroque society in Artemisia Gentileschi's paintings are hardly flattering. Although the artist, considered the only female Italian Baroque painter, portrays historical and biblical scenes in her works, the overall picture is far from flattering.

But enough is known about her life to allow for an autobiographical interpretation: Artemisia Gentileschi – also known as Artemisia Lomi – particularly portrayed strong women and heroines.

Take, for example, the painting “Judith Beheading Holofernes” : With a cool, almost disgusted expression, Judith leans to the side as she draws the knife through the throat of Holofernes, who is stretched out on the bed, assisted by a servant. There is no pity, no doubt about the deed to be seen. The figures are depicted plastically and very realistically; the pathos typical of the Baroque period .

Video: Great Art Explained – Judith Beheads Holofernes

Strong women who do what needs to be done – that is the theme of Artemisia Gentileschi's paintings. That her figures captured the spirit of the times is obvious: she not only lived from her painting, but also raised her daughter, whom she trained alongside male artists in her own workshop.

Who was Artemisia Gentileschi?

Artemisia Gentileschi was an outstanding painter of the Baroque period . The daughter of the Roman artist Orazio Gentileschi, she was born in Rome. She demonstrated her impressive talent with multi-figure history paintings in cities such as Rome, Venice, Florence, Naples, and London.

Artemisia Gentileschi stood out in the art scene of the Baroque period . Compared to Renaissance female painters such as Sofonisba Anguissola from Cremona and Lavinia Fontana from Bologna, who were known for portraits and religious paintings, Artemisia Gentileschi was the first to establish an excellent reputation as a creator of large-format compositions with mythological and biblical themes.

In the Baroque art world, history painting was considered the pinnacle of painting. Artemisia Gentileschi's works often depict acts of violence with female protagonists , which can possibly be explained by her biography – whether this is a correct or incorrect interpretation is frequently the subject of debate.

Talent and traumatic experiences

Artemisia Gentileschi Lomi was born in Rome in July 1593. She was the daughter of the famous Roman painter and Caravaggio follower Orazio Gentileschi and his wife Prudenzia di Ottaviano Montoni. Her mother died when Artemisia was only twelve years old.

Two of her brothers, both named Giovanni Battista, died in 1601 and 1603. Until 1607, Artemisia was apparently the only woman in her father's household, before her widowed sister Lucrezia joined them for a time. Because of these circumstances, Artemisia likely received little or no formal education, which was common for women of her time, especially those from similar social classes.

It must have been difficult for Artemisia to grow up. Her father was very domineering and followed the early 17th-century code of conduct, which prescribed an authoritarian demeanor. To prove her virtue, Artemisia was rarely allowed to leave the house and always had to be accompanied on outings.

Artistic training

Her father trained her in his workshop from 1608 or 1609, just like her brothers who are still alive.

Orazio, however, was not a teacher at a university. Artemisia had no opportunity to reproduce artworks that were accessible to others in public and in the churches of Rome. Her training was likely limited to grinding pigments, mixing paints, and learning the basics of painting by imitating her father's work.

Artemisia may also have studied copperplate engravings by other artists.

Orazio Gentileschi recognized his daughter Artemisia's exceptional talent early on and began her training when she was about 13 or 14 years old. By the age of 16, she was already painting independently and displaying unparalleled talent. In a letter from 1612, Orazio praised Artemisia's abilities to Christina of Lorraine.

Her first signed painting, “Susannah and the Elders,” from 1610 (see below), confirms her exceptional skill, as it is full of maturity and subtlety, even though she was only 17 years old. Artemisia Gentileschi developed into an impressive artist who created great works at a young age.

Video: Who was Artemisia Gentileschi and how does she portray herself in this rare self-portrait?

Italian Baroque is primarily associated with Caravaggio – and this is also true of the Gentileschi workshop. Orazio Gentileschi was not only influenced by the great painter's style but was also a friend of his. This is evident in his daughter's paintings. However, the Italian Baroque painter developed a very naturalistic style that differs from her father's more idealized depictions.

The first known history painting by Artemisia Gentileschi was created by the Italian Baroque painter at the age of 17; she also dated and signed it. Today, the painting " Susanna and the Elders" in Pommersfelden. Its depiction leaves no doubt about the sexual assault by the judges.

rape

In 1611, Orazio Gentileschi brought Agostino Tassi (c. 1580–1644) into his workshop. The two painters worked together on the fresco on the ceiling of the Casino delle Muse in the Palazzo Pallavicini-Rospigliosi in Rome. Tassi was also to teach Artemisia; he was known for his impressive landscape paintings. Her proud father, Orazio Gentileschi, had recognized his daughter's talent and wanted his fellow painter to help her develop her understanding of perspective.

However, he raped Artemisia in May 1611 in her father's house. Because the father later reported the crime, we know the gruesome details.

From the court records of 1612, statement by Artemisia Gentileschi:

When we reached the door, he pushed me into the room and locked it behind us. With a blow to my chest, he threw me onto the bed, then drove his knee between my thighs and stuffed a handkerchief over my mouth so I couldn't scream. Now he pushed up my skirts, which was difficult for him, drove his other knee between my legs, and inserted his penis into my vagina. Then he let go of my hand and began to thrust. As he entered, I felt a sharp burning sensation and pain. I resisted, but couldn't call for help because he was still covering my mouth. I scratched his face, pulled out some of his hair, and, before he inserted it, struck his penis so hard that a piece of flesh tore off. But he wasn't deterred and continued what he was doing. He didn't get off me until he had finished. When I was free, I ran to the table drawer, took out a knife, rushed at Agostino and shouted: 'I will kill you with this knife, because you have defiled me!'

Agostino Tassi was not an innocent man. His known crimes ranged from murder to incest. Artemisia Gentileschi experienced firsthand what it means to be a woman: Tassi lied to her about a promise of marriage, forced her to undergo gynecological examinations in court, and made her testify under torture.

Tassi vehemently denied the crime throughout the entire trial. He accused Artemisia of lying and countered all accusations with brazen attacks. He had a new fabricated story ready for every interrogation. Although his criminal record included murder, robbery, and incest, Tassi was not tortured—the judges believed him nonetheless.

In October 1612, the trial ended after eight months without any significant results. Tassi was acquitted and seamlessly continued his career; Orazio, Artemisia's father, also resumed their old friendship.

For Artemisia, however, things were different: she repeatedly had to pay the price for being a woman. The nationally known scandal had to be quelled and her public reputation restored.

To secure a livelihood for his daughter despite the disgrace she had suffered, the father married Artemisia off to an artist from Florence. With her new husband, Pietro Antonio Stiattesi, she moved to Florence that same year – from whom she soon separated.

Artemisia remained married to Stiattesi, but had a long-term affair tolerated by her husband and traveled through Europe without him. Of the two sons and three daughters from this marriage, only Prudenzia Stiattesi reached adulthood.

Stopover in Florence: Recognition as an artist

Italian Baroque wasn't confined to Rome: Florence also had its artists and patrons. Artemisia Gentileschi was able to complete a painting in the Cassa Buonarroti in 1613, and in Florence she became the Medici's court painter. She also found another patron in Charles I of England.

Even in Florence, the painter gained recognition among collectors and intellectuals. She associated with Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger, a writer, and with Cristofano Allori. The Accademia delle Arti del Disegno admitted her on July 19, 1615, as its first female member.

Through Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger, Artemisia met the most important figures at the Medici court in Florence. He was not only her friend and patron, but also a financial supporter of her and her husband. Together with him, she painted her only documented work, the "Allegory of Inclination ," for the Casa Buonarroti.

It is assumed that their relationship had existed for a long time, as Buonarroti was even intended to be godfather to her daughter. Through him, Artemisia gained access to a circle of intellectuals, writers, artists, and musicians, which significantly influenced her artistic output and reputation in Florence.

From August 1615, Artemisia Gentileschi, along with the artists Agostino Ciampelli, Sigismondo Coccapani, Giovan Battista Guidoni , and Zanobi Rosi, worked on the ceiling painting of the Casa Buonarotti. This work is the only documented piece from her time in Florence. Art historians interpret the depiction of the nude allegory as an idealized self-portrait of the artist.

During this time, she also received commissions from Cosimo II de' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany, and from Christina of Lorraine. We know of a letter she wrote to Galileo Galilei – she probably met him in Florence.

Further training in the Florentine phase

The Medici court was important for Artemisia Gentileschi, as it not only provided her with employment and financial support, but also allowed her to further her education. She embraced Florentine art and took Christina of Lorraine as her role model. The artist learned to read and write and expanded her knowledge of literature and music.

Unfortunately, most of the works from her Florentine period are lost. We know today that she worked Maria Maddalena d'Austria "Judith Beheading Holofernes" , as well as a "Diana at Her Bath." "Hercules" also said to have been among them. We know the latter because Artemisia Gentileschi had ultramarine delivered for the Hercules but never paid the bill.

Mother of 5 children despite artistic success

It is truly admirable how Artemisia managed to work so diligently despite her pregnancies. In just five years, she gave birth to five children – Giovanni Battista, Agnola, Cristofano, Prudenzia (also known as Palmira), and Lisabella.

Only two of her children lived long enough to accompany her to Rome. Despite the growing family, Pierantonio could not meet all of Artemisia's needs, and so the painter began an affair with Francesco Maria Maringhi. He was a respected administrator in the service of Matteo Frescobaldi, Artemisia's landlord of a property in Florence.

Artemisia's life story shows us her strength and determination to continue to be successful despite all the adversities of her personal life path.

Difficult situation in Rome

As early as March 1620, Gentileschi and Stiattesi were back in Rome. The Italian Baroque painter associated with the humanist and art lover Cassiano das Pozzo and was friends Pierre Dumonstier II

Italian Baroque in the 1620s meant large-scale altarpieces . But Artemisia Gentileschi received no commissions for precisely these. She was the painter of portraits and biblical heroines, and she used the following six years in Rome for a reorientation of her artistic direction. The Spanish ambassador, Fernando Afán de Ribera, bought a "Magdalene" from her, as well as a "David" and a "Christ Blessing the Children."

Even more important for the Italian Baroque painter, however, was Cassiano da Puzo . He was the secretary of Cardinal Francesco Barberini and introduced Artemisia Gentileschi to his circle of artist friends, including Simon Vouet, Nicolas Poussin, and Giovanna Garzoni. Vouet painted a portrait of Artemisia Gentileschi that illustrates these connections.

Artemisia was introduced to Francophone circles in Rome in the 1620s, probably by Simon Vouet. Vouet and Cassiano dal Pozzo both played important roles in her life. Vouet became president of the Accademia di San Luca and painted portraits that Artemisia admired. Dal Pozzo, a papal secretary and nephew of a cardinal, owned portraits of Artemisia and commissioned a self-portrait from her.

They remained in contact even after Artemisia moved to Naples. In the 1630s, she wrote to him with great affection, asking for support for her daughter.

Three years in Venice

Artemisia Gentileschi's next stop was Venice . The Baroque painter left Rome in 1626 or 1627 and spent the next three years in Venice. We know, for example, of a broadsheet from 1627 whose verses are dedicated to three of her paintings.

Her presence is documented in the letters of Antonino Collurafi that have been published.

In 1628, Artemisia Gentileschi was paid by the Count of Oñate, on behalf of the Spanish king, to paint a picture flanking the "Hercules and Omphale ." This prestigious commission was her first from the Spanish monarch and established her as one of Europe's most important painters. This may have prompted her move to Naples, as the city was under Spanish rule and offered better economic opportunities.

Assessing Artemisia's artistic development in Venice is a challenge, as it must be derived from a single painting from the years 1626 to 1630: "Esther before Ahasuerus" (1628–1630, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York).

This work depicts the biblical story of the courageous Esther, who proves her bravery in saving the Jewish people. Artemisia masterfully captures the tension and significance of this scene. The careful composition of the figures and the subtle treatment of light and shadow testify to her skill as a painter.

Escape from the plague: Naples

We don't know exactly when the artist arrived in Naples. However, she was already introduced to the city in the summer of 1630 and likely spent the rest of her life in Naples, apart from a brief stay in London.

In Naples, she created works for the Infanta Maria of Spain, and Artemisia Gentileschi corresponded with Cassiano da Pozzo in Rome. She dated and signed the “Annunciation” and “Clio, Muse of History” .

Naples was an expensive place at that time. Nevertheless, the painter from Rome, who completed her training in Florence and came from Venice, was apparently well established in the art scene. She worked with other local artists on series of paintings, had received commissions from the Viceroy Manuel de Acevedo Zúñiga y Fonseca, and was acquainted with the artist Massimo Stanzione.

Artemisia settled in Naples for almost a quarter of a century, apart from a brief trip to London in the late 1630s. Although she had intended to leave the city, as she expressed in a letter to Andrea Cioli, she found herself amidst the chaos of war and the high cost of living.

Nevertheless, Artemisia was successfully integrated into the Neapolitan art scene and received her first public commissions. She painted her first altarpiece in her late thirties.

Unlike other “foreign” artists, Artemisia was not systematically persecuted by Neapolitan painters. This may have been because she did not pose direct competition for the city’s major decorative projects and possessed strong social skills. Furthermore, she had an ally in Massimo Stanzione, whom she had met during her time in Rome – he played a key role in securing commissions for Philip IV and the cathedral in Pozzuoli.

In the 1630s, Artemisia undertook important public commissions and served a loyal private clientele in Naples . During this time, she expanded her repertoire of historical and biblical narratives to include allegories and literary themes.

Unlike other artists such as Jusepe de Ribera or Battistello Caracciolo, Artemisia's Neapolitan art was characterized by an elegant naturalistic style , which has been described as "tempered naturalism and moderate classicism" .

These influences included Simon Vouet, as well as contemporary painters such as Massimo Stanzione, Paolo Finoglia, and Bernardo Cavallino, with whom Artemisia collaborated closely. It is known that Artemisia created works in which multiple hands can be identified – this may be partly due to the ever-increasing demands on her studio and the need to meet customer requests.

Collaboration with other artists was common in Naples; for example, she worked with landscape specialists such as Domenico Gargiulo (also known as Micco Spadaro) or architectural painter Viviano Codazzi.

In her later years in Naples, her collaboration with figure painter Onofrio Palumbo was even documented. This may have been for practical reasons – due to her advanced age and increasing illness, she had obligations to fulfill.

Brief interlude in London

The Italian Baroque painter lived in London between 1638 and 1640. There she assisted her father with the ceiling paintings for the Queen's House in Greenwich .

During her time in London, Artemisia is said to have been involved in the design of the ceiling of the Great Hall in the Queen's House in Greenwich. Orazio Gentileschi was commissioned by Queen Henrietta Maria to paint a series of ceiling frescoes depicting the theme of peace prevailing over the arts.

Originally intended for the Queen's residence, the paintings were installed by the autumn of 1638 and later moved to Marlborough House. The iconography was most likely agreed upon with the architect Inigo Jones before Artemisia's arrival in London.

Although it would be tempting to assume that father and daughter might have worked together on this project, Artemisia's contribution is not documented and her involvement is disputed due to the poor condition of the canvases after their removal from the Queen's House.

Back to Naples

Her father died in London. In 1641 she returned to Naples – she had probably been employed directly by the Queen during her time in England.

Her last known painting, “Susanne and the Elders,” was created in 1652 shortly after her recovery from an illness, when she was almost sixty years old.

The tax records of Naples still show payments from the painter in August 1654, after which her trail is lost.

How can Artemisia's artistic style be briefly described?

Artemisia Gentileschi's art is stylistically influenced by Caravaggio and her father Orazio, but she places more emphasis on realism and naturalism.

Her paintings are characterized by powerful depictions that impress with rich jewel tones and realistic skin tones. She broke with traditional portrayals of female figures in biblical and mythological stories by presenting strong heroines capable of acting autonomously.

Artemisia Gentileschi portrayed women in her works as strong, courageous, and rebellious figures who did not conform to typical “feminine” characteristics. These depictions of women as equals alongside men, or even as main characters, were unusual for her time. Twentieth-century critics praised her bold brushstrokes and the absence of any shyness or weakness in her paintings.

Gentileschi was sexually abused as a teenager, a trauma reflected in many of her works. Themes such as abuse of power , rape , and violence are recurring themes in her paintings.

It is believed that painting these motifs helped her to process her trauma and to seek revenge and reparations through her artwork.

Italian Baroque without Artemisia Gentileschi? Unthinkable!

The artist was an unusual figure for her time, and she had to fight hard for her place in the art scene. However, as we know from accounts, she held onto it and defended it. She was aware of her situation; we also know this from her own writings.

1916: Late appreciation by art historians

It was only in 1916 – about three centuries after her work – that the Italian art historian Roberto Longhi a detailed study to her.

The art historian located, identified, compared, and evaluated the paintings of Artemisia Gentileschi. In the end, he was firmly convinced that they:

The only woman in Italy who ever knew what painting, color, mixing and similar essential things are.”

According to Longhi, she belongs – regardless of her gender – to the “great masters” of the 17th century. She is considered the founder of “Neapolitan Caravaggism” and her works in no way need shy away from comparisons with such renowned contemporaries as Vermeer and van Dyck (cf. EMMA: Gentileschi – The Artist’s Revenge ).

Despite her exceptional talent, Artemisia had to endure many setbacks. She was the victim of a public trial for rape by a colleague of her father – an event that profoundly affected her life. Nevertheless, she refused to be defeated and continued undeterred on her path.

The reception of her work, however, was difficult for a long time. Many paintings were attributed to other (male) artists; Artemisia Gentileschi was scorned, denied, and ignored. That we know so much about her today is thanks to a number of fortunate circumstances: The artist often signed her paintings, maintained a fairly large workshop, and gained recognition. She was influenced by the Dutch and French artists she had met in Rome – and at times she was overwhelmed with commissions.

The rediscovery of Artemisia Gentileschi by Anna Banti

Anna Banti wrote a fictional biography of Artemisia Gentileschi . This biography led art history to rediscover the most powerful figure of the Italian Baroque.

In 1976 and 1977, paintings by Artemisia Gentileschi were featured in the exhibition “Women Artists” . Since then, the Italian Baroque painter has been a legend, an icon, a role model, and a projection screen for many a fantasy.

Today, Artemisia Gentileschi is finally receiving the recognition she deserves. She is celebrated as a pioneer of feminist art history, and her groundbreaking contributions to 17th-century painting are acknowledged.

Her work continues to serve as an inspiration for many female artists worldwide who fight for their passion against all odds. The “Me Too” movement, , can readily identify with this strong woman who asserted herself in a male-dominated world.

Artemisia Gentileschi as a figurehead of the feminist movement

special significance for feminists since the 1970s , after the feminist art historian Linda Nochlin an article entitled "Why are there no great female artists?" to answer this question.

In this article, she examined the concept of a “great female artist” and found that women in art and other fields did not receive the same recognition as men because of oppressive structures, not because they were less talented.

Nochlin emphasized the importance of studying Artemisia and other female artists to learn more about women's contributions to art history. Eve Straussman 's , "Violence, Planter's & Virtue: Artemisia's Judith Slays Holofernes," includes a foreword by Douglas Druick , who mentions that Nochlin's article encouraged researchers to make greater efforts to include women artists in the history of art and culture.

However, there are also critical voices regarding the “instrumentalization” of the painter for feminist purposes and a one-dimensional view of the artist.

Artemisia's rape is often foregrounded in feminist literature, where she is portrayed as a traumatized but brave and angry survivor whose daily work was marked by sex and violence. According to art historian Griselda Pollock (2006), popular culture often focuses solely on this single episode and not on Artemisia's impressive career spanning many decades in the major art centers of Europe at the time (see Artmajeur Magazine: Artemisia Gentileschi ).

Feminist scholars have long considered Artemisia an icon of feminism, as she painted strong women and established herself as a successful artist in the male-dominated art world of her time, while also being a single mother. This narrative remains highly relevant and pertinent in today's world, particularly in the struggle of many women to reconcile career and family.

Video: Artemisia Gentileschi in 8 paintings | The National Gallery, UK

Highly sought-after works

In the 2010s, prices for paintings by Artemisia Gentileschi already exceeded €1 million. In 2014, Sotheby's a "Portrait of Mary Magdalene" for €865,500, while in 2017 and 2018, the price was almost double that. However, the current record is held by a "Lucretia ," which sold for €4.78 million at Artcurial in Paris in November 2019.

Today, the works of the Italian Baroque painter can be seen in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, hang in the Prado in Madrid and in the Metropolitan Museum in New York .

Other paintings are in the Schönborn Collection in Pommersfelden, in London, Ohio, and Detroit. And in Berlin.

References and literature:

• Artemisia (Exhibition catalogue, The National Gallery, London, 2020–2021), London 2020
• Artemisia Gentileschi and her suo tempo , ed. v. F. Baldassari and MB de Ruggieri (exhibition cat. Palazzo Braschi, Rome 2016–2017), Rome 2016.
• Orazio and Artemisia Gentileschi , ed. by K. Christiansen and JW Mann (Exhibition catalog, Museo del Palazzo di Venezia, Rome, 2001–2002).
• Susanna Partsch : Artemisia Gentileschi: A Combative Baroque Painter – An Uncompromising Businesswoman – An Artist Between Florence and Rome (A Series of Clever Women) , ed. by Molden Verlag in Verlagsgruppe Styria GmbH & Co. KG (March 6, 2023), ISBN-13: 978-3222150807
• Anna Banti : Artemisia . Novel. (= Artemisia ) Translated from the Italian by Sylvia Höfer, published by Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag (Fischer-Taschenbücher, 1995) ISBN 3-596-12048-9
• Garrard, Mary D .: Artemisia Gentileschi: The Image of the Female Hero in Italian Baroque Art , ed. v. University Press Group Ltd, ISBN.13: 978-0691002859
• Carla Heussler : Art is Female!: A Different Art History from Artemisia Gentileschi to Yoko Ono. Successful female painters, interesting rediscoveries, and contemporary female artists in portrait, ed. by wbg Theiss; 1st ed. (September 22, 2023)
• Eve Straussman-Pflanzer,  Oliver Tostmann : By Her Hand: Artemisia Gentileschi and Women Artists in Italy, 1500-1800 , ed. v. Yale University Press (November 30, 2021), ISBN-13: ‎ 978-0300256369

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