“White Gold” – A journey through the history of porcelain

Porcelain is considered the finest of all ceramic materials and has held a prominent position in both art and everyday life throughout the centuries. The term "ceramic" itself derives from the Greek word "kerameia , "fired ." This origin refers to the fundamental manufacturing process in which the materials are fired to achieve their final shape and strength.

But porcelain is far more than just a fired material. It is often referred to as a "white wonder" or "white gold ." This special form of ceramic is characterized by its exceptional purity and delicacy. Its production requires an extremely precise mixture of kaolin, feldspar, and quartz.

These raw materials are fired in a special kiln at extremely high temperatures, often exceeding 1200 degrees Celsius. This fire transforms the underlying materials into an almost translucent substance with an aesthetic that combines both elegance and functionality.

The result of this meticulous process is not only visually appealing but also remarkably durable. Porcelain is known for its low porosity, which makes it resistant to water and dirt – qualities that make it the ideal choice for tableware, artistic sculptures, and decorative objects.

In many cultures, porcelain has even been valued as a symbol of luxury and refinement. Its fine lines, delicate white color, and intricate patterns captivate viewers worldwide, inviting them to explore the history and craftsmanship embodied in each piece.

It is a material that impresses not only with its physical properties, but also with the artistry and creativity of the people who produced it.

In this sense, the material is not only quite rightly a "white wonder" , but also a fascinating testament to human creation.

The beginnings: China's achievements

Vase from the Tang Dynasty; Porcelain Gallery, Hebei Museum, Shijiazhuang (China)

Image source: Gary Todd, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

During the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the Chinese finally began to produce the material using kaolin (white clay) and petuntse (a feldspar mineral). These materials were fired at extremely high temperatures, resulting in the glossy white and translucent appearance of porcelain.

The beauty and refinement of this material were no accident, however. Rather, they were the result of centuries of experimentation and improvements in ceramic technology.

It is said that the best pieces of porcelain from the Tang Dynasty were so thin that they appeared almost translucent in the light.

Eventually, porcelain and the necessary expertise for its production spread to other regions of East Asia. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD), craftsmanship and production experienced a remarkable upswing.

The production of the material was highly structured, and up to 25,000 pieces could be fired simultaneously in the dragon kilns excavated from this era; towards the end of this period, this number even exceeded 100,000 pieces.

Vase from the Song Dynasty; Porcelain Gallery, Xinzheng City Museum, Henan Province (China)

Image source: Gary Todd, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Artwork from a special exhibition on the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Palace Museum, Taipei (Taiwan)

Image source: Gary Lee Todd, Ph.D., CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), porcelain products were exported to Europe.

Many of the most prestigious Chinese porcelain styles reached the European market during this period, including the prized "blue and white" pieces. These were considered exceptional rarities and works of art, and were often set in precious metals.

The rulers of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 CE) were passionate patrons of the arts, which flourished in many ways during their reign. In 1677, Emperor Kangxi (r. 1662-1722) rebuilt the imperial kilns and production facilities in Jingdezhen.

The development of a wide variety of opaque overglaze enamel colors represented one of the most significant advances in ceramic technology during the Qing period.

Qing porcelain from the Kangxi dynasty; Ceramics and Porcelain Gallery, Palace Museum, Taipei (Taiwan)

Image source: Gary Lee Todd, Ph.D., CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

The road to the West: Porcelain in Europe

The famous explorer Marco Polo brought porcelain to Europe from China in the 14th century : a small grey-green vessel found among his many silks, spices, and vials of musky aromas. Polo called it Porcellana .

In Italian, this is a name for the cowrie shell, whose shimmering, white surface resembles porcelain. Its shape is similar to the bellies of porcellini —or small pigs. Both terms are closely related to porcellina , a somewhat different and offensive word that a certain type of man might shout at a woman as she walks down the street.

Marco Polo based his ideas on how to produce the precious material on a deceptive assumption, and for almost five hundred years better approaches failed to emerge.

The dishes are made from crumbly earth or clay, which is dug out as if from a mine and stacked in huge mounds, then exposed to wind, rain and sun for thirty or forty years.”

Polo noted this in his records.

At this point, the soil is so refined that dishes made from it have an azure blue hue with a very brilliant shine.”

A report from 1550 suggests that

Porcelain is also made from a specific sap that flows together underground and is brought from the East.”.

In 1557, an even more creative theory was put forward, according to which

Eggshells and the shells of navel fish are ground into dust, which is then mixed with water and formed into vases.”

These are then hidden underground. A hundred years later, they are unearthed and considered complete.

None of these assumptions later proved true. Eggshells and fish shells would disintegrate into ash.

Early attempts at porcelain production in medieval Europe

Traditionally, porcelain is made from two basic components: kaolin , also known as china clay, a silicate mineral that gives porcelain its malleability and stability; and petunus , or potter's stone, which gives ceramics their transparency and strength.

The secret of its production remained a mystery to Europeans for centuries. European nobles spent vast sums on the valuable porcelain from the Far East, further cementing its status as a luxury item.

The invention of soft-paste porcelain

Attempts by medieval European potters to imitate this translucent Chinese porcelain eventually led to the discovery of artificial or soft-paste porcelain , a mixture of clay and ground glass that requires a "softer" firing process (around 1,200 °C or 2,200 °F) than hard-paste porcelain.

Although there is a superficial similarity, artificial porcelain can generally be distinguished from real porcelain by its softer body.

For example, it can be cut with a file, whereas real porcelain cannot, and dirt that has accumulated on an unglazed surface is difficult or impossible to remove, whereas it can be easily removed from real porcelain.

The first European soft-paste porcelain was created around 1575 in Florence in manufactories under the patronage of Francesco I de' Medici . However, it was not produced in significant quantities until the late 17th and 18th centuries.

Alchemist's breakthrough

n't until the 18th century that the German alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger and the mathematician Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus succeeded in unlocking the secret of this precious material. Under the patronage of Augustus the Strong , the art-loving Elector of Saxony, they founded the famous Meissen porcelain manufactory in 1710.

An interesting anecdote: Böttger was originally searching for the philosopher's stone, which was supposed to produce gold. Instead, he discovered the recipe for " white gold" .

Meissen porcelain: synonymous with excellence

Meissen porcelain quickly became the benchmark for quality and artistry in Europe. The manufactory was renowned for its exquisite decorations, ranging from delicate flowers to stunning scenes from everyday life at the time.

Interestingly, Meissner also developed cobalt blue , a color that is still frequently found in decorations on the material today.

Another astonishing fact: Every piece of Meissen porcelain is still largely handcrafted and painted today. This tradition of handcraftsmanship underscores its exclusive and high-quality character.

The problem with the glaze

After the process for manufacturing porcelain was discovered in Meissen in the 18th century, the modelers and porcelain painters faced new challenges.

On the one hand, it was necessary to take into account, even when shaping the blank , that the material would shrink considerably during firing. On the other hand, it was a major challenge to find colors that could withstand the extreme temperatures of the final glaze firing.

Applying the glaze over the motifs was crucial to protect the applied designs on plates, cups and jugs from abrasion.

This transparent substance, which was originally used to seal a porous ceramic body, is now used exclusively for decorating hard porcelain, which is not porous.

When feldspar glaze and ceramic body are fired together, they fuse tightly. Porcelain fired without a glaze, known as bisque porcelain , became popular in 18th-century Europe. It was primarily used for figurative representations.

In the 19th century, bisque porcelain was given the name Parian ware. Some soft-paste porcelains, which retain a certain porosity, require a glaze.

After firing, a lead-based glaze is usually applied and the piece is fired again to create a glazed surface. Unlike feldspar glaze, it adheres to the material as a relatively thick layer.

Although experiments with various colors, either applied to or combined with the glaze, were conducted early on, initially only a blue dye had been discovered as a long-lasting underglaze color that was heat-resistant enough.

For this reason, early European product series, which are of interest to collectors and art dealers antique porcelain

Global Styles: From Limoges to Bone China

Following its success in Meissen, other European nations soon followed suit. France's Limoges porcelain achieved great fame in the 19th century and is still prized today for its fineness and elegance.

The English invention of bone china , a mixture of kaolin and bone ash, is characterized by its exceptional strength and translucency. It is not just functional tableware, but also art.

Fun fact: Bone china got its name from the use of bone ash, mostly from cattle. This gives the material exceptional strength and clarity.

Evolution of porcelain painting

Over time, the art of porcelain painting a remarkable evolution, expanding not only its technical possibilities but also leading to a vibrant color palette. Initially, the selection of colors for underglaze painting was limited, but intensive experimentation and discovery allowed for the development of new hues and nuances.

These innovations allowed the artists to fully exploit their creative freedom and elevate the motifs to a completely new level. Every single motif, be it a delicate floral arrangement or a majestic dragon , was applied by hand with the utmost care and dedication. This meticulous handwork gave each piece a unique touch and made the porcelain painter a true artist in his craft.

The rising popularity of this art form led to the creation of colorful series, whose motifs were often inspired by Far Eastern traditions. These motifs not only reflected exotic stories but also incorporated elements that delighted the eye and touched the heart.

Among the many outstanding examples of this artistry, the world-famous Flora Danica by Royal Copenhagen out, whose magnificently designed decorations are now considered the epitome of exquisite porcelain painting.

The combination of innovative techniques, vibrant colors and captivating motifs has secured this art form a firm place in society for centuries and made porcelain painters revered masters of their discipline.

Craftsmanship and modernity: Continued innovation

Today, porcelain art is experiencing a renaissance. Modern artists and designers are experimenting with new shapes, colors, and techniques.

Traditional manufacturing methods are combined with contemporary design, resulting in stunning pieces for the modern lifestyle.

Final words

The history of porcelain is a history of art, culture, and technological innovation.

From the imperial courts of China to the elegant salons of the 18th century and on to today's modern design studios, porcelain has always held a special fascination. With its unique qualities and aesthetic appeal, it embodies timeless elegance and craftsmanship.

So, the next time you admire your favorite porcelain or enjoy an artfully decorated cup of tea, take a moment to think about the millennia-old tradition and masterful craftsmanship behind these pieces.

Stay curious! Who knows, you might discover your own "white gold" in a new collection or an antique find.

Frequently asked questions about porcelain

1. What is the difference between porcelain and ceramic?

Porcelain and ceramics are both products made from clay, but they differ in the materials used and the firing temperature.

The former consists of special white clay and is fired at higher temperatures, which gives it its characteristic hardness and translucency. Ceramic, on the other hand, is usually less transparent and more porous.

2. How do I care for and clean porcelain dishes?

To care for your porcelain tableware, you should wash it by hand, especially if it has hand-painted decorations.

Avoid harsh cleaning agents and use mild soap and warm water instead. Do not place workpieces made of this material in the microwave if they have gold or metallic decorations, as these can cause sparks.

3. Why is porcelain so expensive?

The manufacturing process is complex and requires special materials and high firing temperatures.

Furthermore, many products are handmade and hand-painted, which requires additional labor and artistry. The combination of these factors leads to its being considered a luxurious and expensive material.

4. How can I recognize high-quality porcelain?

High-quality porcelain is characterized by its fineness, translucency, and even glaze. Brands such as Meissen, Limoges, and Royal Worcester are well-known indicators of quality.

A clear and distinct marking on the bottom of the piece also helps with identification.

5. Can damaged porcelain be repaired?

Yes, damaged porcelain can often be repaired, especially if it involves minor chips or cracks. Professional restorers can make repairs almost invisible. For valuable and antique pieces, it's worth consulting a specialist.